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            <gco:CharacterString>This deep water substrate bottom type model was created to aid in habitat modeling, and to complement the nearshore bottom patches. It was created from a combination of bathymetrically-derived layers in addition to bottom type observations. Using random forest classification, the relationship between observed substrates and bathymetric derivatives was estimated across the entire area of interest. 

The raster is categorized into: 1) Rock, 2) Mixed, 3) Sand, 4) Mud</gco:CharacterString>
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                  <gmd:LocalisedCharacterString locale="#fra">Ce modèle de type de fond à substrat en eau profonde a été créé pour faciliter la modélisation de l’habitat et pour compléter les parcelles de fond du littoral. Il a été créé à partir d’une combinaison de couches dérivées de la bathymétrie en plus des observations du type de fond. À l’aide d’une classification par forêt d’arbres décisionnels, la relation entre les substrats observés et les dérivés bathymétriques a été estimée dans l’ensemble du site d’intérêt.

La trame est classée en : 1) Roche, 2) Mélange, 3) Sable, 4) Vase</gmd:LocalisedCharacterString>
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            <gco:CharacterString>Du Preez, C. 2015. A new arc–chord ratio (ACR) rugosity index for quantifying three-dimensional landscape structural complexity. Landscape Ecology 30:181-192. https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s10980-014-0118-8.</gco:CharacterString>
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            <gco:CharacterString>Substrate observations were assembled from the following sources: Canadian Hydrographic Service (CHS), Dive survey data, CHS marsh data, Natural Resources Canada (NRCan), and Remotely Operated Vehicle (ROV) surveys. These observations were mapped to common bottom type classes: rock, mixed, sand, or mud. Using ArcGIS, the points were classified into training (2/3) or testing (1/3) data. The training subset is fully withheld from the model-building process and is used to evaluate the model’s performance. The random partitioning of the data into training and test subsets does not address the issue of spatial autocorrelation between observations. 

The code to create the model follows the following steps:
A raster stack of environmental predictors is created. Point observations are overlayed onto the raster stack, and the values from the predictors are extracted to the points. Records with invalid BType4 values or with NA values from the predictors are removed. The training data are weighted according to their prevalence and are used to fit a random forest model using the ranger package (which supports case weighting). The fitted model is used to predict to the extent of the input environmental raster stack, classifying the entire area into rock, mixed, sand, or mud. The predicted surface is exported as a GeoTIFF raster file in the same resolution as the raster stack predictors (in this case, 100 metre resolution) and with the same projection. Evaluation statistics including Kappa, and accuracy by predicted class are generated using the withheld test data.

Manual steps after the model has been generated:
1) Reproject layer to EPSG: 3005 (R does not support writing the top-level EPSG code to the coordinate reference system information)
2) Create a raster attribute table with SUBSTRATE field for text classes.
3) Add a field for prevalence in the raster attribute table. 

Predictor Layers:
Using GDAL, the source bathymetry layers (NOAA and BCMCA) were resampled and mosaicked to produce a 100 m bathymetry raster layer. Where bathymetry rasters overlapped in space (the majority of the region except for Dixon Entrance, Chatham Sound and Portland Canal areas) the NOAA bathymetry layer overwrote the BCMCA layer. The derivatives of bathymetry were created using the Arcpy module in python (see Scripts section in the metadata). The bathymetry layer was smoothed using a focal mean prior to generating the following derivatives: slope -&gt; standard deviation of slope, and curvature. This step was required as a method to reduce artefacts found in the derivatives. During development, these artefacts from the non-smoothed bathymetric derivatives carried through to the predicted substrate models. The non-smoothed bathymetry was used to generate the standardized BPI layers because this processing already involves processing with a neighbourhood of cells. A categorical layer for rugosity was used from the B.C. Marine Conservation Atlas (BCMCA). It was converted to a 100 m raster grid to align with the other predictor layers. It was decided to use this layer because it had been derived from bathymetry and then manually edited. See the methods described in the data sources link. As input to the random forest model, the original non-smoothed bathymetry was used. Ocean energy layers were also included – mean bottom ocean currents (Masson and Fine 2012), and mean tidal speed on the bottom (Masson and Fine 2012). The original data for the Regional Ocean Modeling System (ROMS) has a 3 by 3 km grid resolution. These data were interpolated using Spline with Barriers (ESRI) and resampled to 100 m resolution rasters. See the scripts section for a link to the ROMS data processing. The bathymetry was primarily sourced from NOAA, with a small portion mosaicked to the northwest from SciTech bathymetry (see Data Sources for links). The bathymetric position index (BPI) layers were created using the Benthic Terrain Modeler toolbox and were standardized after being calculated. It is important to note that when calculating BPI, the tool expects bathymetric data to have negative values associated with depths rather than positive. 

Predictor Layers:
1:  Bathymetry
2:  Slope (bathymetric derivative) - degrees
3:  Standard Deviation of Slope (bathymetric derivative)
4:  Broad Bathymetric Position Index (bathymetric derivative) - Inner Radius: 25 - Outer Radius: 250
5:  Medium Bathymetric Position Index (bathymetric derivative) - Inner Radius: 10 - Outer Radius: 100
6:  Fine Bathymetric Position Index (bathymetric derivative) - Inner Radius: 3 - Outer Radius: 25
7:  Curvature (bathymetric derivative; slope of slope)
8:  Rugosity (BCMCA)
9:  Circulation
10: Tidal</gco:CharacterString>
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                  <gmd:LocalisedCharacterString locale="#fra">Les observations du substrat ont été rassemblées à partir des sources suivantes : Service hydrographique du Canada (SHC), données de relevés en plongée, données du SHC sur les marais, Ressources naturelles Canada (RNCan) et relevés par véhicule sous-marin téléguidé (VTG). Ces observations ont été mises en correspondance avec les classes de type de fond communes : roche, mixte, sable ou boue. À l’aide d’ArcGIS, les points ont été classés en données d’apprentissage (2/3) ou de test (1/3). Le sous-ensemble d’apprentissage est totalement exclu du processus de création du modèle et est utilisé pour évaluer le rendement de chaque modèle. Le partitionnement aléatoire des données en sous-ensembles d’apprentissage et de test ne permet pas de résoudre le problème de l’autocorrélation spatiale entre les observations.

Le code pour créer le modèle suit les étapes suivantes :
Une série matricielle de prédicteurs environnementaux est créée. Les observations ponctuelles sont superposées à la série matricielle, et les valeurs des prédicteurs sont extraites vers les points. Les enregistrements avec des valeurs BType4 non valides ou avec des valeurs S.O. des prédicteurs sont supprimés. Les données d’apprentissage sont pondérées en fonction de leur prévalence et sont utilisées pour ajuster un modèle de forêt d’arbres décisionnels à l’aide du progiciel Ranger (qui prend en charge la pondération des cas). Le modèle ajusté est utilisé pour prédire l’étendue de la série matricielle environnementale d’entrée, en classant la zone entière dans les catégories roche, mixte, sable ou boue. La surface prédite est exportée sous forme de fichier de données tramées GeoTIFF avec la même résolution que les prédicteurs de la série matricielle (dans ce cas, une résolution de 100 mètres) et avec la même projection. Les statistiques d’évaluation, notamment kappa et la précision par classe prédite, sont générées à l’aide des données de test retenues.

Étapes manuelles après la génération du modèle :
1) Effectuer une nouvelle projection de la couche vers EPSG : 3005 (le progiciel R ne prend pas en charge l’écriture du code EPSG de haut niveau dans les données du système de référence des coordonnées).
2) Créer un tableau d’attributs matriciels avec un champ SUBSTRATE (substrat) pour les catégories avec texte.
3) Ajouter un champ pour la prévalence dans le tableau des attributs matriciels.

Couches de prédicteur : À l’aide de la GDAL, les couches bathymétriques sources (NOAA et BCMCA) ont été rééchantillonnées et mosaïquées afin de produire une couche matricielle de bathymétrie de 100 mètres. Lorsque les trames de bathymétrie se chevauchaient dans l’espace (une grande partie de la région, à l’exception des zones de l’entrée Dixon, du passage Chatham et du canal de Portland), la couche de bathymétrie de la NOAA a écrasé la couche du BCMCA. Les dérivés de la bathymétrie ont été créés à l’aide du module Arcpy en langage Python (voir la section Scripts dans les métadonnées). La couche de données bathymétriques a été lissée en utilisant une moyenne focale avant de générer les dérivés suivants : pente -&gt; écart-type de la pente, et courbure. Cette étape était nécessaire pour réduire les artefacts trouvés dans les dérivés. Au cours de l’élaboration, ces artefacts provenant des dérivés bathymétriques non lissés se sont répercutés sur les modèles de substrat prédits. Les données bathymétriques non lissées ont été utilisées pour générer les couches de l’Indice de position bathymétrique (IPB) normalisées, car ce traitement implique déjà un traitement avec un voisinage de cellules. Une couche catégorique pour la rugosité a été utilisée à partir du B.C. Marine Conservation Atlas (BCMCA). Elle a été convertie en une grille matricielle avec une résolution de 100 m pour s’aligner sur les autres couches de prédicteurs. Il a été décidé d’utiliser cette couche parce qu’elle avait été dérivée de la bathymétrie et ensuite modifiée manuellement. Voir les méthodes décrites dans le lien des sources de données. Les données bathymétriques originales non lissées ont été utilisées en tant que données d’entrée du modèle de forêt d’arbres décisionnels. Les couches de données sur l’énergie océanique ont également été incluses – les courants océaniques moyens de fond (Masson et Fine 2012), et la vitesse moyenne des marées sur le fond (Masson et Fine 2012). Les données originales du système de modélisation océanique régionale (ROMS) ont une résolution de grille de 3 km sur 3. Ces données ont été interpolées à l’aide de l’outil Spline avec interruptions (ESRI) et rééchantillonnées en trames avec une résolution de 100 m. Voir la section sur les scripts pour obtenir un lien vers le traitement des données du modèle ROMS. La bathymétrie provient principalement de la NOAA, avec une petite partie mosaïquée au nord-ouest à partir de la bathymétrie SciTech (voir Sources de données pour obtenir les liens). Les couches de l’Indice de position bathymétrique (IPB) ont été créées à l’aide de l’outil de modélisation du terrain benthique et ont été normalisées après avoir été calculées. Il est important de noter que lors du calcul de l’IPB, l’outil s’attend à ce que les données bathymétriques aient des valeurs négatives associées aux profondeurs plutôt que des valeurs positives. 

Couches de prédicteur :
1 : Bathymétrie
2 : Pente (dérivé bathymétrique) – degrés
3 : Écart-type de la pente (dérivé bathymétrique)
4 : Indice de position bathymétrique vaste (dérivé bathymétrique) – Rayon intérieur : 25 – Rayon extérieur : 250
5 : Indice de position bathymétrique moyen (dérivé bathymétrique) – Rayon intérieur : 10 – Rayon extérieur : 100
6 : Indice de position bathymétrique fin (dérivé bathymétrique) – Rayon intérieur : 3 – Rayon extérieur : 25
7 : Courbure (dérivé bathymétrique; pente de la pente)
8 : Rugosité (BCMCA)
9 : Circulation
10 : Marée</gmd:LocalisedCharacterString>
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