The stratosphere is the upper middle part of the atmosphere, and is the level of the Jet Stream winds. Colder temperatures in the stratosphere over the Arctic are associated with the positive phase of the Arctic Oscillation, and are indicative of stronger polar winds.

Discharge is the volume rate of water flow, including any suspended solids (i.e. sediment), dissolved chemical species (i.e. CaCO3(aq)) and/or biologic material (i.e. diatoms), which is transported through a given cross-sectional area.[Buchanan, T.J. and Somers, W.P., 1969, Discharge Measurements at Gaging Stations: U.S. Geological Survey Techniques of Water-Resources Investigations, Book 3, Chapter A8, 1p. Wikipedia: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Discharge_%28hydrology%29#cite_note-0]

Launched in June 2008, Jason-2, also referred to as the Ocean Surface Topography Mission (OSTM), was the follow-on mission from Jason-1 and Posiedon/TOPEX. In this mission, the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) and Centre National d'Etudes Spatiales (CNES) worked collaboratively with the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) and European Organization for the Exploitation of Meteorological Satellites (EUMETSAT) to extend the existing time series of ocean surface topography measurements. Jason-2 successfully obtained a continuous record of observations in line with previous missions which included measurements of time-averaged ocean circulation, global sea-level change and improved open ocean tide models, until it was decommissioned in October 2019.

Jason-1 (Joint Altimetry Satellite Oceanography Network) Mission. Jason is the name of a joint CNES/NASA oceanography mission series with the objective to monitor global ocean circulation, discover the tie between the oceans and atmosphere, improve global climate predictions, and to monitor events such as El Nino conditions and ocean eddies. The oceanography mission series is considered a cornerstone of GCOS (Global Ocean Observing System), a concept advocated by WMO (World Meteorological Organization), IOC (Intergovernmental Oceanographic Commission of the UNESCO), UNEP (United Nations Environmental Program), and ICSU (International Council of Scientific Unions).

There are no Arctic-wide or Antarctic-wide measurements of the volume of sea ice, but the volume of the Arctic sea ice is calculated using the Pan-Arctic Ice Ocean Modeling and Assimilation System (PIOMAS) developed at the University of Washington Applied Physics Laboratory/Polar Science Center. PIOMAS blends satellite-observed sea ice concentrations into model calculations to estimate sea ice thickness and volume. Comparison with submarine, mooring, and satellite observations help increase the confidence of the model results

GRACE (Gravity Recovery And Climate Experiment) satellites mapped detailed measurements of the global gravitational fields with unprecedented precision. Data from GRACE satellites covered wide application areas. GRACE consists of two satellites (A, B) serving one mission.

ClONO2 - This is a stratospheric reservoir species for chlorine and nitrogen, two of the catalysts in the breakdown of ozone. It reacts with HCl at low temperatures on the surfaces of polar stratospheric clouds (PSCs over Antarctica and possibly in the stratosphere over the Arctic). That normally slow reaction heterogeneously produces molecular chlorine and nitric acid. The former outgases from the PSC surface and is quickly photolyzed by 450 nm or shorter wavelength light to form chlorine radicals which rapidly catalyze the breakdown of ozone (see chlorine monoxide). [Science; v 238; pages 1258-1260; 1987.] [Science; v 258; pages 1342-1345; 1992.]

Launched in October 2005, CryoSat was a next-generation radar altimetry mission, aiming to determine variations in the thickness of the Earth's continental ice sheets and marine ice cover. Primary objective is to test the prediction of thinning arctic ice due to global warming. CryoSat was supposed to be the first Earth Explorer Opportunity mission in ESA's Living Planet program, but was lost in a launch failure on 8 October 2005, prompting the development of a successor mission, CryoSat-2.

Difference of sea surface height and mean sea surface. Sea surface height may be corrected using models for effects such as tides and atmospheric forcing

Pertaining to the measured height of large thick, glaciers, with an area of at least 50,000 sq. km, covering a continuous stretch of land and growing in all directions.